PSEB 12th Model Test Paper 2026 Philosophy with Solution PDF

Hegel's philosophy is centered on the concept of the ``Absolute Idea'' developing through a specific process.


This process is known as the ``Dialectic'', which moves through a triad of Thesis, Antithesis, and Synthesis.


Because this dialectical method is fundamental to his system, his form of idealism is famously called Dialectical Idealism.
Quick Tip: Associate Hegel with the ``Dialectic'' (Thesis-Antithesis-Synthesis). This distinguishes him from earlier forms of Idealism.

Karl Marx adapted Hegel's dialectical method but rejected his idealistic foundation.


Marx argued that the fundamental reality is not the ``Idea'' or ``Spirit'', but the material world.


Therefore, the core element of his philosophy, Dialectical Materialism, is Matter.
Quick Tip: Marx turned Hegel ``right side up'' by replacing the ``Idea'' with ``Matter'' as the driving force of reality.

Empiricism is the epistemological theory that emphasizes the role of experience.


It claims that the mind is a blank slate (\(tabula\) \(rasa\)) at birth.


Consequently, all knowledge is derived from sensory perception or Sensory experience.
Quick Tip: Remember: Rationalism \(\rightarrow\) Reason; Empiricism \(\rightarrow\) Experience (Senses).

In Logic, propositions are categorized by quantity and quality: A, E, I, and O.


The statement implies that ``Some birds do not fly'' (e.g., Ostriches), acknowledging the existence of birds that lack the attribute of flight.


A proposition of the form ``Some S is not P'' is a Particular Negative proposition.


The symbol for a Particular Negative proposition is \(O\).
Quick Tip: Proposition Codes: \(A\) = All S is P; \(E\) = No S is P; \(I\) = Some S is P; \(O\) = Some S is not P.

``Number Philosophy'' refers to the Pythagorean school of thought.


Pythagoras famously taught that mathematical relations govern all things.


Therefore, he asserted that the fundamental substance or basis of the universe is Number.
Quick Tip: Pythagoras viewed numbers as the divine archetypes of reality, unlike Thales (Water) or Heraclitus (Fire).

The phrase ``Sarbat da Bhala'' literally translates to ``the welfare of everyone''.


It is a core prayer in Sikhism asking for the well-being of the entire humanity, not just oneself.


This directly corresponds to the principle of Collective welfare.
Quick Tip: Sikhism emphasizes universal brotherhood; ``Sarbat'' means All/Everyone.

In psychology and philosophy, the mental functions are traditionally divided into three categories.


These categories are Cognition (Knowledge), Affection (Emotion), and Conation (Will).


Collectively, these three faculties constitute the Mind.
Quick Tip: The three aspects of the Mind are often called the ``Trilogy of Mind'': Thinking, Feeling, and Willing.

Karma Yoga is the path of action described in the Gita.


Its defining teaching is ``Nishkama Karma'', which means action without attachment to the outcome.


Thus, the main principle is to Perform duty without desiring results.
Quick Tip: Key phrase: Karmanye vadhikaraste ma phaleshu kadachana (Your right is to the duty, never to the fruits).

Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that studies the fundamental nature of reality.


It investigates concepts like existence, being, time, and space.


Therefore, it deals with the question: What is real?
Quick Tip: Distinguish the branches: Metaphysics = Reality; Epistemology = Knowledge; Ethics = Morality.

Nyaya Philosophy is the Indian school of Logic and Epistemology.


It focuses on identifying the valid sources or means of knowledge.


The Sanskrit term for a valid means of knowledge is Pramana.
Quick Tip: Nyaya accepts four Pramanas: Perception, Inference, Comparison, and Testimony.

Hegel's philosophical system is centered on the concept of the ``Absolute Spirit'' or ``Absolute Idea''.


While his method is dialectical, the specific name given to his metaphysical system is Absolute Idealism.


This distinguishes it from Subjective Idealism (Berkeley) and Transcendental Idealism (Kant).
Quick Tip: Hegel = Absolute Idealism. The ``Absolute'' is the ultimate reality that comprehends everything.

Karl Marx adopted the Dialectical method from Hegel but applied it to material conditions rather than ideas.


He used this method to explain historical development and social change, a framework known as Dialectical Materialism.


Through this method, he analyzed the conflict between opposing classes (thesis and antithesis) which drives history.
Quick Tip: Marx's method is the ``Dialectic'' applied to Matter (Materialism), leading to the theory of Class Struggle.

The ``Number Philosophy'' refers to Pythagoreanism.


Pythagoras taught that the fundamental reality or substance of the universe is Number.


He believed that everything in the cosmos could be expressed in numerical relationships.
Quick Tip: Pythagoras: ``All is Number''. Mathematical harmony is the basis of reality.

The institution of 'Pangat' (literally 'line' or 'row') involves people sitting together in rows to eat langar (community meal) regardless of caste, creed, or status.


This practice was established to break social barriers and demonstrate the principle of equality.


Therefore, the statement is True.
Quick Tip: Pangat = Sitting in a line; Sangat = Congregation. Both promote equality in Sikhism.

Nyaya philosophy accepts four Pramanas (means of knowledge).


Among these, Pratyaksha (Perception) is considered the primary or foundational Pramana.


All other Pramanas (Inference, Comparison, Testimony) ultimately depend on Perception for their data.
Quick Tip: Pratyaksha is the Jyestha (Eldest/Primary) Pramana in Indian epistemology.

The three fundamental functions of the Mind are Cognition (Knowledge), Affection (Emotion), and Conation (Will).


This tripartite classification is standard in philosophy and psychology to describe mental life.
Quick Tip: The Mind thinks (Knowledge), feels (Emotion), and acts (Will).

The scientific method relies on empirical evidence.


Its two main pillars are systematic Observation (gathering facts) and Verification (testing hypotheses).


Without observation, there is no data to verify.
Quick Tip: Science starts with Observation and ends with Verification.

Karma Yoga (the yoga of action) is often cited as the central teaching or message of the Bhagavad Gita.


It teaches how to live in the world and perform duties without being bound by them.
Quick Tip: The Gita is the scripture of Yoga, and Karma Yoga is its practical application for life.

Empiricism asserts that all valid Knowledge comes from sensory experience.


The senses provide the raw data (impressions) which the mind processes into ideas.
Quick Tip: Empiricism: Senses \(\rightarrow\) Experience \(\rightarrow\) Knowledge.

In most schools of Indian Philosophy (especially Nyaya, Sankhya, and Advaita Vedanta), bondage is due to ignorance (Avidya).


Therefore, liberation (Moksha/Kaivalya) is attained through the removal of ignorance, which is Knowledge (Jnana/Vidya).
Quick Tip: Ignorance binds; Knowledge (Jnana) liberates. Saa Vidya Ya Vimuktaye.

Based on the source text provided in the question paper:


The text explicitly states that Karma Yoga teaches one should "perform their duties selflessly".


It further clarifies the meaning of selflessly as acting "without attachment to the outcome".


Therefore, Karma Yoga is defined as the performance of prescribed duties without desire for the fruits of the action.
Quick Tip: Look directly at the text: "It teaches that one should perform their duties selflessly".

The question asks for the spiritual implication or meaning of non-attachment as per the text.


The source paragraph concludes by stating that this principle (giving up attachment) "leads one towards a life of humility, detachment, and service."


Spiritually, this implies that detaching from results purifies the mind and fosters spiritual virtues.
Quick Tip: Identify the effect mentioned in the text: "leads one towards...".

The very first sentence of the source text identifies the scripture.


It begins with: "According to the Bhagavad Gita, Karma Yoga is essential..."


Therefore, the principle is found in the Bhagavad Gita.
Quick Tip: Always check the introductory phrase of the source text for context and origin.

While the specific text focuses on definitions, the relevance can be inferred from the text's mention of "success of life".


In today's competitive society, anxiety about results is a major cause of stress.


Applying this principle helps individuals focus on their work (duty) rather than the anxiety of the outcome, leading to mental peace and efficiency.
Quick Tip: Relate "success of life" mentioned in the text to modern problems like stress and competition.

The text states that the principle leads to a life of "service".


A Karma Yogi, therefore, performs actions for the benefit of others (Lokasamgraha) rather than for personal gain.


Their role is to act as a selfless contributor to the well-being of the community.
Quick Tip: Keyword in text: "Service". A Karma Yogi is a servant of society.

The text implies a connection by urging one to act "without attachment to the outcome".


Normally, humans are emotionally attached to the fruits of their labor (desire, hope, fear).


Karma Yoga addresses this emotional link by advising detachment, transforming the action into duty rather than an emotional investment in success or failure.
Quick Tip: The existence of the "attachment" mentioned in the text confirms the emotional connection usually exists.

According to the provided text:


"In ‘Sangat’, people gather to meditate on God’s name".


This is the direct definition provided in the case study.
Quick Tip: Sangat comes from "Sang" (company). It is the holy congregation.

The text states: "in ‘Pangat’, people from all backgrounds sit together to share a meal."


This practice breaks down social hierarchies such as caste, creed, and status.


By sitting in one row (Pangat) and eating the same food, discrimination is actively opposed and equality is practiced.
Quick Tip: Pangat destroys the caste-based barrier of "untouchability" in dining.

The text explicitly mentions the founder of these traditions.


It says: "Guru Nanak Dev Ji started the traditions of ‘Sangat’ and ‘Pangat’..."


Therefore, Guru Nanak Dev Ji is the correct answer.
Quick Tip: Guru Nanak Dev Ji is the first Guru and founder of Sikhism.

The traditions promote "equality, brotherhood, and respect".


In modern society, 'Pangat' is applied through Langar (free community kitchens) which feeds the hungry regardless of status.


'Sangat' is applied through community gatherings that foster unity and social cohesion across different groups.
Quick Tip: Application involves translating "Equality" and "Sharing" into modern social service.

The text links these traditions to a "social wave of equality" and meditation on God.


Spiritually, 'Sangat' allows for collective spiritual elevation.


'Pangat' fosters humility and the recognition that the same Divine light resides in all, reinforcing the brotherhood of humanity.
Quick Tip: Spirituality in Sikhism is deeply linked to Social Service (Sewa) and Equality.

"Sarbat da Bhala" means the welfare of all.


'Sangat' provides for the spiritual welfare of the community.


'Pangat' provides for the physical welfare (food) of the community.


Together, they ensure that everyone is cared for, directly manifesting the prayer for universal well-being.
Quick Tip: Connect the specific practices (eating/praying) to the general goal (Universal Welfare).

Individualistic Idealism, also known as Subjective Idealism, is primarily associated with George Berkeley.


Its central feature is the principle ``Esse est percipi'', meaning ``to be is to be perceived''.


It asserts that material objects do not exist independently of the mind that perceives them.


Physical objects are merely collections of ideas or sensations within the mind.


It denies the existence of inert matter, arguing that only minds (spirits) and their ideas are real.
Quick Tip: Key phrase: ``Esse est percipi'' (Existence is perception). Reality is mental, not material.

Dialectical Materialism is the philosophical system founded by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.


It combines the dialectical method (development through contradiction: thesis, antithesis, synthesis) with materialism (matter is the fundamental reality).


It posits that the material world is in a constant state of flux and evolution driven by internal conflicts.


Its aim is to scientifically analyze the history of society and nature to guide the revolutionary transformation of society.


Ultimately, it aims to establish a classless, communist society by resolving the contradictions of capitalism.
Quick Tip: Contrast: Hegel uses Dialectics for Ideas; Marx uses Dialectics for Matter/History.

Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy dealing with the fundamental nature of reality.


Its main elements (or branches) typically include Ontology, which studies the nature of ``Being'' or existence itself.


Cosmology involves the study of the origin, structure, and laws of the universe (World).


It also includes the study of the Soul (Rational Psychology) and God (Rational Theology).


Thus, the core elements are the Self (Soul), the World (Cosmos), and God (Absolute).
Quick Tip: Think of the ``Big Three'' of Metaphysics: God, Soul, and World.

In Nyaya philosophy, Pramana is the central topic, as it is the valid means of acquiring Prama (true knowledge).


It is important because Nyaya believes that liberation comes from the right knowledge of reality.


Without Pramana, one cannot distinguish between valid knowledge (truth) and illusion or error.


Nyaya establishes four valid Pramanas: Pratyaksha (Perception), Anumana (Inference), Upamana (Comparison), and Shabda (Testimony).


These serve as the logical tools to verify reality and defeat skepticism.
Quick Tip: Nyaya is the school of Logic; Pramana is the tool of Logic.

The Utilitarian principle, formulated by philosophers like Bentham and Mill, is an ethical theory.


It states that an action is morally right if it tends to promote happiness or pleasure and wrong if it produces pain.


The core maxim is ``The Greatest Happiness of the Greatest Number''.


Example: A government spending money on a public park that benefits thousands is preferred over a project benefiting only a few.


Another Example: In a medical emergency, saving five patients is chosen over saving one if resources are limited (triage).
Quick Tip: Utility = Usefulness for Happiness. It is a consequentialist theory (outcome-based).

``Sarbat da Bhala'' is a Punjabi phrase meaning ``Welfare of All'' or ``Blessings for Everyone''.


It is the concluding line of the Sikh daily prayer (Ardas).


The concept reflects the universalistic and humanitarian spirit of Sikhism.


It urges Sikhs to rise above personal ego and pray for the peace, prosperity, and happiness of the entire world.


It signifies that a Sikh desires good not just for themselves or their community, but for all of humanity.
Quick Tip: It represents the ultimate altruism: praying for the good of even one's enemies.

Karma Yoga is highly relevant to practical, everyday life.


It transforms ordinary work into spiritual practice by changing the attitude towards the work.


In practical life, it teaches stress management by encouraging individuals to focus on the effort rather than worrying about the result.


It promotes efficiency and concentration, as the mind is free from the anxiety of success or failure.


It fosters a spirit of service, making one a better citizen and professional who works for the collective good.
Quick Tip: Karma Yoga turns ``Work'' into ``Worship'' (Work is Worship).

Empiricism argues that sense experience is the primary source of knowledge (posteriori).


Rationalism argues that Reason or intellect is the primary source of knowledge (priori).


Empiricists (like Locke, Hume) believe the mind is a blank slate (\(tabula\) \(rasa\)) at birth.


Rationalists (like Descartes, Spinoza) believe in innate ideas present in the mind at birth.


Empiricism relies on the Inductive method (observation to theory), while Rationalism relies on the Deductive method (theory to specific truth).
Quick Tip: Empiricism = Senses (Bottom-up); Rationalism = Logic (Top-down).

In Number Philosophy (Pythagoreanism), numbers are not just symbols but the fundamental stuff of reality.


Pythagoras taught that ``All is Number'', meaning the universe is constructed according to mathematical principles.


Numbers represent order, harmony, and proportion in the cosmos (e.g., musical scales, planetary motion).


They are considered the immutable, eternal essence that gives form to the formless matter.


Thus, understanding numbers is the key to understanding the divine structure of the universe.
Quick Tip: For Pythagoras, Math is Metaphysics. The world is a manifestation of Number.

Hegel's philosophy is known as Absolute Idealism.


He posits that the ultimate reality is not material but spiritual or rational, which he calls the "Absolute Idea", "World Spirit", or "Geist".


According to Hegel, this Absolute Spirit is not static; it is a dynamic process of self-development and self-realization.


The method of this development is the Dialectic, which proceeds in a triad:


1. Thesis: An initial position or affirmation.


2. Antithesis: The negation or opposite of the thesis.


3. Synthesis: A higher unity that resolves the conflict between thesis and antithesis, preserving the truth of both.


For Hegel, "The Rational is Real and the Real is Rational," meaning the structure of reality matches the structure of logical thought.


History, nature, and human consciousness are all stages in the unfolding of the Absolute Spirit towards total freedom and self-awareness.
Quick Tip: Hegel's slogan: ``The Real is Rational''. Reality is the mind (Reason) unfolding itself through history.

Dialectical Materialism is the philosophical foundation of Marxism.


Principle: It combines Hegel's dialectical method with Materialism. Marx argued that the fundamental reality is Matter, not the "Idea".


Consciousness is merely a reflection or product of material conditions.


The "Dialectic" in Marx implies that matter and society evolve through internal contradictions (class struggle) rather than the unfolding of a spirit.


Key Laws: It operates on laws like the transformation of quantity into quality, the interpenetration of opposites, and the negation of the negation.


Relevance: It provides a framework for understanding history (Historical Materialism) as a struggle between economic classes (e.g., Bourgeoisie vs. Proletariat).


It serves as a tool for revolutionary change, predicting the eventual collapse of capitalism and the rise of socialism/communism.
Quick Tip: Marx: "It is not the consciousness of men that determines their being, but their social being that determines their consciousness."

Method: Karma Yoga, as expounded in the Bhagavad Gita, is the path of "Nishkama Karma".


This means performing one's prescribed duties (Svadharma) efficiently and enthusiastically, but without attachment to the results (fruits) of those actions.


The practitioner offers all actions to the Divine, maintaining equanimity in success and failure.


Benefits: It purifies the mind (Chitta Shuddhi) by removing ego and selfish desires.


It leads to inner peace, freedom from the bondage of Karma, and ultimately to Moksha (liberation).


Modern Relevance: In today's high-stress society, it is a powerful stress-management technique.


It encourages professional ethics, ensuring that one works for the collective good rather than just personal greed.


It prevents "burnout" by detaching personal self-worth from external outcomes.
Quick Tip: Karma Yoga acts as a "spiritual shield" against the anxiety of failure.

Guru Nanak Dev Ji established the twin institutions of Sangat and Pangat to create a casteless, egalitarian society.


Sangat (Holy Congregation): It is a gathering of devotees where everyone sits together to sing hymns and meditate.


Social Role: It creates a spiritual democracy where a King and a pauper sit at the same level, removing social distinctions and fostering brotherhood.


Pangat (Common Kitchen Row): It refers to the practice of sitting in rows to partake in Langar (free community meal).


Social Role: It actively breaks the taboos of caste and untouchability, as people of all castes eat the same food sitting side-by-side.


Together, they instill the values of Sewa (selfless service), humility, and the recognition of the Divine in every human being.
Quick Tip: Sangat cures the ego of the mind; Pangat cures the discrimination of society.

1. Scope:


Science deals with specific, sectional aspects of reality (e.g., Physics studies matter, Biology studies life).


Philosophy deals with the whole of reality, seeking a comprehensive and universal view of existence.


2. Method:


The Scientific Method is Empirical and Inductive. It relies on observation, experimentation, and verification by the senses.


The Philosophical Method is primarily Rational, Reflective, and Speculative. It relies on logic, reason, and intuition to understand concepts that cannot be measured physically (like justice, god, or truth).


3. Nature of Questions:


Science asks "How?" and looks for immediate causes and facts.


Philosophy asks "Why?" and "What does it mean?", looking for ultimate meaning and values.


4. Outcome:


Science produces tentative, verifiable facts and theories. Philosophy produces worldviews and critical understanding.
Quick Tip: Science breaks things down to understand them (Analysis); Philosophy puts things together to understand the whole (Synthesis).

Metaphysics and Epistemology are the two central pillars of philosophy, and they are deeply intertwined.


Metaphysics asks "What is real?" (Nature of Reality).


Epistemology asks "How do we know?" (Nature of Knowledge).


Relationship:


1. Epistemology precedes Metaphysics: Before we can claim to know what reality is, we must determine if our mind is capable of knowing it. (e.g., Kant argued we must critique reason before doing metaphysics).


2. Metaphysics influences Epistemology: Your view of reality shapes your theory of knowledge. If you believe only Matter is real (Metaphysics), you will likely rely on Senses (Empiricism). If you believe Reality is Ideal, you may rely on Reason (Rationalism).


3. Circular Dependence: You cannot define "Knowledge" without assuming some "Knower" and "Known" (Metaphysical entities), and you cannot define "Reality" without a way to know it (Epistemology).
Quick Tip: They go hand-in-hand: Metaphysics is the "Object" of thought; Epistemology is the "Method" of thought.